Exactly the same problem.
I have never used Jetpack
But in the Apache server logs I saw “Photon/1.0”
Found that images are cached. Example https://i1.wp.com/it-actual.ru/media/Could-not-open-profile-folder-1.png
Please clear the cache.
Confirmation that I am the owner of the site https://it-actual.ru/problem.html
Sorry for my English.
